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Confucianism is usually described as a social philosophy that is highly reliant upon ethics and moral teachings; however, that definition is too restrictive. Confucianism encompasses all elements of Chinese societyit is a philosophy, a religion, and a way of life. The tapestry of Chinese thought both past and present has been tightly woven by the thread of Confucianism that is a concept that is much more complex than is implied by messages within fortune cookies which begin with, "Confucius says...""What has become known as Confucianism began with a man who began life in 551B.C. as Kung Fu-tzu.It was much later when Jesuit missionaries bestowed the name of Confucius upon the man who was entrusted with the responsibility of reviving the Zhou (Chou) dynasty, with no thought of creating one of his own.Confucius is Latin meaning "Grand Master Kung (or Kong)" (Yang, ).Little is known about the personal life of Confucius, which was probably his intention.The only glimpse of Confucius life comes from the man himself in Confucian Analects, where he recalls the events leading up to his philosophical and spiritual journey The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning.At thirty, I stood firm.At forty, I had no doubts.At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven.At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth.At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right" (II, ).
It is apparent that Confucius was always a nonconformist, at one time politically ambitious, but always cognizant of his teaching abilities.Although the number of students he actually taught was not great, his disciples were quickly in demand for political positions by a monarchy that seemed to fear the master, but needed the skill he passed on to his pupils. His life, by all accounts, was quite ordinary, and it was only after his death in 47 B.C. that Confucius became divine.
Suddenly, his words and his teachings were no longer threatening and became embraced by all. Confucius was, as C.K. Yang described in Religion in Chinese Society, "not a zealot or fanatical reformer with a panacea.Sober and circumspect, he was not a visionary, a mystic, or a religious enthusiast.Yet he was a man with vision, a man with a goal and a purpose; he had zeal, and he offered an essentially religious way to the good society".
Confucius may perhaps best be described as the Aristotle of China.He cherished wisdom and believed that society was based upon moral integrity and that culture should be a reflection of this virtue.As described in Confucian Analects, "There were four things which the Master taught -letters, ethics, devotion of soul, and truthfulness.The Master said, A sage it is not mine to see; could I see a man of real talent and virtue, that would satisfy me. The Master said, A good man it is not mine to see; could I see a man possessed of constancy, that would satisfy me. Having not and yet affecting to have, empty and yet affecting to be full, straitened and yet affecting to be at ease it is difficult with such characteristics to have constancy" (VII, 0-1).
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During the Han dynasty, the Chinese government recognized a need for scholarly figures to fill administrative positions, and Confucians most competently satisfied the great demand.By 100 B.C. emperor Wu-Ti adopted Confucianism as the official doctrine of China.This remained in effect until 105, when civil service examinations based on the teachings of the classics were discontinued (Nivison, 18).Throughout the centuries, several titles were bestowed upon "the Grand Master Kung" including Supreme Teacher, King, and Supreme Saint.However, when Mao Tse-tung created the Peoples Republic of China in the twentieth century, the cult of Confucius dissipated, and the Master was described as the number one criminal of feudal thinking.
True, Confucianism did emerge as a reaction against feudal society.Confucius endeavored to find a way for citizens to achieve stability in a frequently unstable society.He sought to find a concept which people could understand and embrace both intellectually as well as spiritually.Harmony has historically been an integral part of Chinese culture, expressed by the opposing forces of Ying and Yang.Confucius teaching extended the harmonious concept to society, with balance achieved by the people working collectively to ensure the progress of the state, while the government dedicated itself to protect the people and implement programs which would best enable the people to serve the state ("Confucian Schools of Thought").
Perhaps a greater understanding of Confucianism may be obtained by examining what became known in the Neo-Confucian age as the Four Books, which were directly influenced by the teachings of Confucius.The Confucian Analects, whose authorship is attributed to Confucius but has always been seriously questioned, is a collection of Confucius sayings.This is where the concepts of filial piety and friendship are first introduced "The Master said, A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders.He should be earnest and truthful.He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies" (I. i).
Virtue is described in the Confucian Analects as, "The Master said, If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame.If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good" (I. ).It is clear in this passage that Confucius holds the government responsible for both defining and perpetuating morality in society.
The Confucian concepts of heaven and perfect virtue are first introduced in Analects.According to Confucius, "To be able to practice five things everywhere under heaven constitutes perfect virtue... Gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness.If you are grave, you will not be treated with disrespect.If you are generous, you will win all.If you are sincere, people will repose trust in you.If you are earnest, you will accomplish much.If you are kind, this will enable you to employ the services of others" (XVII, 58-5).Like the ancient Greeks, Confucius believed that goodness and knowledge were synonymous, and that one could not be achieved without the other.He described benevolence as the love of mankind and knowledge is "to know all men" (XII, 8).
Another desirable discussed in the Confucian Analects is propriety (decency of conduct), which the Grand Master believed needed to be dictated by rules of etiquette "The Master said, Respectfulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes timidity; boldness, without the rules of propriety, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the rules of propriety, becomes rudeness" (VIII, 1).Man must use three rules of conduct to live an honorable life.First, he must control his behavior so that violence that results from recklessness does not occur.Next, he must strive to maintain his composure at all times to achieve sincerity.Third, a man of must choose his words carefully so that there is never a hint of impropriety in his manner or actions.Government plays an important role in establishing the behavior of citizens within a society, according to Confucius.He wrote that the conduct of government officials must be correct at all times because if it is not, rules will not be obeyed, orders will not be followed.Government must protect its society at all costs and without rules of preservation, chaos inevitably results.In other words, government should be a "leadership by example."
The Book of Mencius is an extension of Confucianism offered by Meng Tzu (Master Meng), who is known by the Latin name Mencius (0 B.C.- 05 B.C.). His is the longest of the Four Books and is primarily concerned with nonviolence and achieving goodness through wisdom. Mencius contended that human nature was essentially good and that government needs only to reinforce the positive attributes that already existed.If government failed in doing so and became an instrument of corruption, Mencius advocated the dissolution of the government by any means necessary.Nonviolence is always the goal, but sometimes violence is a necessary evil that must be occasionally employed to keep government honest and to protect the rights of citizens.
The Doctrine of the Mean is the Confucian document of harmony.Man must preserve a sense of balance in his life by avoiding extremes (Cua, 17). Confucius adequately summarized this philosophy in the following passage "While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state of Equilibrium.When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of Harmony.This Equilibrium is the great root from which grow all human actions in the world, and this Harmony is the universal path that they all should pursue.Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish" ( "The Doctrine of the Mean").
Furthermore, unity must be sought in family relationships.Family relationships take up a large percentage of 'religious' community in Confucianism.According to Confucius, a harmonious family is a happy one "Happy union with wife and children is like the music of lutes and harps.When there is concord among brethren, the harmony is delightful and enduring.Thus may you regulate your family, and enjoy the pleasure of your wife and children" ("The Doctrine of the Mean").To achieve this harmony, the laws of universal obligation must be obeyed.Confucius wrote, "The duties of universal obligation are five and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three. The duties are those between sovereign and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder brother and younger, and those belonging to the intercourse of friends.Those five are the duties of universal obligation.
"Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy, these three are the virtues universally binding.And the means by which they carry the duties into practice is singleness" ("The Doctrine of the Mean").In other words, by satisfying the five universal obligation criteria, man can then achieve the single-mindedness necessary to live in harmony.
The fourth book of Confucianism is The Great Learning, which is a program of correct thinking which has been described as self-cultivation (Liu, 75-76).Of this, Confucius wrote, "The cultivation of the person depends on rectifying the mind may be thus illustrated If a man be under the influence of passion he will be incorrect in his conduct...When the mind is not present, we look and do not see; we hear and do not understand; we eat and do not know the taste of what we eat" ("The Great Learning").The premise behind The Great Learning is simply Man must first find order in his immediate surroundings.If a man is unable to regulate his family, how can he expect to govern the states citizens? Confucianism is, first and foremost, about common sense.If a man cannot control one or two people, how can he realistically expect to control the masses?
Confucianism ceases being just a philosophy because the rituals that have become so much a part of its practice qualify it as a religion.Over the years, the ethical teachings advocated by Confucius have been performed ritualistically and the three fundamental beliefs are identified as heaven (tien), jen and tao.Confucius differed from other thinkers of his day in that his religious attitudes, such as they were, bordered on agnostic (Yang, 1).He often wrote of heaven, but interpreted it as more of a moral power than as a place.Heaven, according to Confucius, is the omnipotent basis of ethics.
What has been referred to as the Mandate of Heaven is the Confucian concept of human destiny and the foremost authority on right and wrong.In Confucianism, if a man does not understand the moral order of the universe, he has no right to call himself a ruler.An example of Confucianism is provided in Religions East and West when the Shang king responsible for overthrowing the Hsia Empire said to the citizens in the famous Announcement of Tang, "The way of Heaven is to give blessings to the good and misfortunes to evildoers.Heaven has sent down calamities on the ruler of Hsia in order to make clear his sins.I, the little child, following the Mandate of Heaven that gave me clear power, did not dare to forgive him. The criminal was finally degraded and subjugated.The Mandate of Heaven is always correct" (Liu, 8)
The Book of Mencius explores the Mandate of Heaven even further by advocating revolution to rid the state of an undesirable ruler who loses sight of the Mandate of Heaven.In an often quoted passage (Book I., pt.ii., c.viii), it was written, "King Seuen of Tse asked Is it true that Tang banished Kee and that King Wu slew Chow? Mencius replied History tells us so. The king asked May a minister put his sovereign to death? Mencius said He who outrages benevolence is called a robber; he who outrages righteousness, is called a ruffian.The robber and ruffian we call a mere fellow.I have heard of the execution of the fellow, Chow, but I have not so heard of ones sovereign being put to death" (Dawson).
The second element of Confucianism is the Chinese term jen.Chinese concepts cannot be adequately defined by one or two corresponding English words.The closest description to jen is the word good, in terms of how it relates to God and heaven, but that, too, is probably inaccurate.Jen may also be used to describe the natural order of things.Philosophically speaking, jen is that human quality which distinguishes man from animals (Titus and Smith 8).In other words, qualities often described as characteristics of man like courage, loyalty and integrity are representative of jen in Confucianism.
The third tenet of Confucianism is tao, which again is too complex to be described in a few English words, but basically is a way in which things should be done.When Confucius referred to tao, he was undoubtedly describing way to heaven.By studying and understanding tao as practiced by the ancients, the Confucians believe that they can live harmoniously by following their ruler and making their family happy which provides them with a secure environment.Confucius believed that corruption existed among the government officials of his time because they did not properly honor tao, which explained their negative and destructive behavior (Nivison, 41).In spiritual terms, Taoism seeks to achieve total unity with the universe.To have any hope of achieving harmony, man must strive to make himself one with his surroundings.Taoism resembles Henry David Thoreaus concept of the natural man because it emphasizes simplicity as the means of maintaining harmony.
The Neo-Confucian movement can be traced back to the Sung dynasty that lasted from 60 until 17, and broadened the Confucian philosophy to include parts of Buddhism and Taoism ("Neo-Confucianism").These scholars were primarily ethical philosophers who believed that incorporating Buddhist and Taoist concepts into Confucianism offered a more comprehensive theory of human nature and the order of the universe.The Neo-Confucian movement spawned two schools of philosophy -- the li school of law advocated by Chu Hsi and the rival hsin school of the mind embraced by Wang Yang-ming.
According to Chu Hsi, everything in nature is composed of two forces -- li, which is the universal concept of law; and chi, which is "the substance from which all material things are made" ("Neo-Confucianism").Although chi may be subject to change, li always remains constant.Man can only achieve a semblance of purity according to Chu Hsi if he has an understanding of li, or the natural order of all things in the world.
Contrary to Chu Hsis school of Neo-Confucianism was Wang Yang-mings hsin school that emphasized the mind rather than law.According to hsin Neo-Confucianism, natural law does not exist as a separate entity.It begins, as does everything else in the mind.Without the mind, there is nothing.Man can only seek harmony through quiet contemplation and meditation.He cannot understand the world or his place in it without stimulating the mind for all concepts originate within the mind.
The Ching dynasty which existed from 1644 until 11 introduced yet another school of thought into Neo-Confucianism.Ching scholars sought to "get back to basics" with the emphasis reverting back to the teachings of Confucius ("Neo-Confucianism").The Ching scholars developed a critical interpretation of the Confucian Classics by utilizing philosophic and scientific forms of methodology, history and even archaeology ("Neo-Confucianism").Metaphysics was also introduced to Neo-Confucianism and several groups advocated adopting the Confucian philosophy as the official religion of China at the beginning of the 0th century.However, with the Chinese Revolution of 111, Confucianism in any of its incarnations suddenly seemed outdated.Without the ruling monarchy and the radical changes taking place within the family and social structures of China, Confucianism rapidly began losing its popular appeal.
Despite Confucianism being considered pass by the Chinese elitists, it still warrants serious study today because of its concentration on ethics.Confucianism differs from other philosophies in that it is an inherently positive philosophy.Both Confucius and Mencius believed that benevolence was an essential component of human nature (Liu, 11).Confucianism places its emphasis not upon rules and regulations like the Ten Commandments, but rather in a moral person.Confucianism recognizes that laws do not exist in and of themselves but are used to govern men.Therefore, the emphasis should always be on man rather than the laws themselves.
Moral character is not only desirable, but absolutely necessary in Confucianism.The moral person who personifies these honorable qualities is described in Chinese as chun-tzu.In the time of Confucius, this term was usually used to describe the son of a nobleman or prince.In English, a chun-tzu would be a gentleman or aristocrat.As with all concepts in Chinese philosophy, the chun-tzu has a counterpart, and this is the hsiao-jen, which is loosely translated to describe the common man (Wei-Ming, 88).
This type of man is deemed common because he is one of questionable morals.On the topic of what constitutes the superior man, it states in the Confucian Analects, "Tsze-kung asked what constituted the superior man.The Master said, He acts before he speaks, and afterwards speaks according to his actions" (II, 4).In other words, the moral or superior man in Confucianism is one who is willing to practice what he preaches.This makes him desirable both as a ruler and as a human being.
Although not preoccupied with rules as such, there are certain ethical regulations that are an integral part of Confucianism.The ultimate virtue in Confucianism is hsiao or filial piety. This is important in understanding the Chinese family structure because filial piety is respect for ones parents to the point of submissiveness (Dawson, 4).There is a Confucian document known as The Canon of Filial Piety in which it was written, "The Master said, Filial piety is the basis of virtue and the source of culture" (Dawson, 56).Filial piety also included a period of prolonged mourning at the death of either parent.Largely because of Confucianism, the Chinese family structure is the opposite of Western families in that children are always expected to be solicitous of their parents instead of vice-versa.Respect is something children learn from their earliest ages and this is taught in the home, not in the classroom.
To achieve filial piety in Confucianism, there are five relationships (which were discussed earlier in the description of perfect virtue) that are necessary to achieve both harmony in society as well as in the household.Although it is assumed that filial piety implies that the parents are always dominant and the children are always submissive, this is not necessarily true.This is overly simplistic and ignores that there are responsibilities expected of both.This is best expressed in the following passage quoted in Religion in Chinese Society from The Book of Rites "What are the things which men consider right? Kindness on the part of the father, and filial duty on that of the son; gentleness on the part of the elder brother, and obedience on that of the younger; righteousness on the part of the husband, and submission on that of the wife; kindness on the part of the elders, and deference on that of juniors; with benevolence on the part of the ruler, and loyalty on that of the minister; -- these ten are the things which men consider right".
Confucianism provided the Chinese people with a blueprint for moral behavior for 000 years.It remains a valuable social philosophy because it recognizes the importance of each member of society.Each member has a distinct purpose, and of each member, much is expected.In turn, the government is expected to lead by example, and if it cannot do so, it must be overthrown.Parents sacrifice much to provide for their families, and in return, children treat them with respect.Throughout their lives, they never forget what their parents have done for them, and always honor them accordingly.Confucianism is not an extremist philosophy, but rather, an optimistic middle-of-the-road approach that promises man if he lives in harmony with nature and his fellow man, he will achieve happiness on earth and find his way to eternal happiness in heaven.
"Confucian Schools of Thought."
http//deall.ohio-state.edu/jin./c1/refs/confism.htm
"Neo-Confucianism"
http//deall.ohio-state.edu/jin./c1/refs/confism.htm
"Confucius" http//www.friesian.com/confuci.htm
Confucian Analects(500 B.C.)
http//mars.superlink.net/user/fsu/analect1.html
The Great Learning(500 B.C.)
http//mars.superlink.net/user/fsu/daxue.html
The Doctrine of the Mean(500 B.C.) http//classics.mit.edu/Confucius/doctmean.html
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