Confucianism

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Confucianism is usually described as a social philosophy that is highly reliant upon ethics and moral teachings; however, that definition is too restrictive. Confucianism encompasses all elements of Chinese societyit is a philosophy, a religion, and a way of life. The tapestry of Chinese thought both past and present has been tightly woven by the thread of Confucianism that is a concept that is much more complex than is implied by messages within fortune cookies which begin with, "Confucius says...""What has become known as Confucianism began with a man who began life in 551B.C. as Kung Fu-tzu.It was much later when Jesuit missionaries bestowed the name of Confucius upon the man who was entrusted with the responsibility of reviving the Zhou (Chou) dynasty, with no thought of creating one of his own.Confucius is Latin meaning "Grand Master Kung (or Kong)" (Yang, ).Little is known about the personal life of Confucius, which was probably his intention.The only glimpse of Confucius life comes from the man himself in Confucian Analects, where he recalls the events leading up to his philosophical and spiritual journey The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning.At thirty, I stood firm.At forty, I had no doubts.At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven.At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth.At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right" (II, ).

It is apparent that Confucius was always a nonconformist, at one time politically ambitious, but always cognizant of his teaching abilities.Although the number of students he actually taught was not great, his disciples were quickly in demand for political positions by a monarchy that seemed to fear the master, but needed the skill he passed on to his pupils. His life, by all accounts, was quite ordinary, and it was only after his death in 47 B.C. that Confucius became divine.

Suddenly, his words and his teachings were no longer threatening and became embraced by all. Confucius was, as C.K. Yang described in Religion in Chinese Society, "not a zealot or fanatical reformer with a panacea.Sober and circumspect, he was not a visionary, a mystic, or a religious enthusiast.Yet he was a man with vision, a man with a goal and a purpose; he had zeal, and he offered an essentially religious way to the good society".

Confucius may perhaps best be described as the Aristotle of China.He cherished wisdom and believed that society was based upon moral integrity and that culture should be a reflection of this virtue.As described in Confucian Analects, "There were four things which the Master taught -letters, ethics, devotion of soul, and truthfulness.The Master said, A sage it is not mine to see; could I see a man of real talent and virtue, that would satisfy me. The Master said, A good man it is not mine to see; could I see a man possessed of constancy, that would satisfy me. Having not and yet affecting to have, empty and yet affecting to be full, straitened and yet affecting to be at ease it is difficult with such characteristics to have constancy" (VII, 0-1).

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During the Han dynasty, the Chinese government recognized a need for scholarly figures to fill administrative positions, and Confucians most competently satisfied the great demand.By 100 B.C. emperor Wu-Ti adopted Confucianism as the official doctrine of China.This remained in effect until 105, when civil service examinations based on the teachings of the classics were discontinued (Nivison, 18).Throughout the centuries, several titles were bestowed upon "the Grand Master Kung" including Supreme Teacher, King, and Supreme Saint.However, when Mao Tse-tung created the Peoples Republic of China in the twentieth century, the cult of Confucius dissipated, and the Master was described as the number one criminal of feudal thinking.

True, Confucianism did emerge as a reaction against feudal society.Confucius endeavored to find a way for citizens to achieve stability in a frequently unstable society.He sought to find a concept which people could understand and embrace both intellectually as well as spiritually.Harmony has historically been an integral part of Chinese culture, expressed by the opposing forces of Ying and Yang.Confucius teaching extended the harmonious concept to society, with balance achieved by the people working collectively to ensure the progress of the state, while the government dedicated itself to protect the people and implement programs which would best enable the people to serve the state ("Confucian Schools of Thought").

Perhaps a greater understanding of Confucianism may be obtained by examining what became known in the Neo-Confucian age as the Four Books, which were directly influenced by the teachings of Confucius.The Confucian Analects, whose authorship is attributed to Confucius but has always been seriously questioned, is a collection of Confucius sayings.This is where the concepts of filial piety and friendship are first introduced "The Master said, A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders.He should be earnest and truthful.He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies" (I. i).

Virtue is described in the Confucian Analects as, "The Master said, If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame.If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good" (I. ).It is clear in this passage that Confucius holds the government responsible for both defining and perpetuating morality in society.

The Confucian concepts of heaven and perfect virtue are first introduced in Analects.According to Confucius, "To be able to practice five things everywhere under heaven constitutes perfect virtue... Gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness.If you are grave, you will not be treated with disrespect.If you are generous, you will win all.If you are sincere, people will repose trust in you.If you are earnest, you will accomplish much.If you are kind, this will enable you to employ the services of others" (XVII, 58-5).Like the ancient Greeks, Confucius believed that goodness and knowledge were synonymous, and that one could not be achieved without the other.He described benevolence as the love of mankind and knowledge is "to know all men" (XII, 8).

Another desirable discussed in the Confucian Analects is propriety (decency of conduct), which the Grand Master believed needed to be dictated by rules of etiquette "The Master said, Respectfulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes timidity; boldness, without the rules of propriety, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the rules of propriety, becomes rudeness" (VIII, 1).Man must use three rules of conduct to live an honorable life.First, he must control his behavior so that violence that results from recklessness does not occur.Next, he must strive to maintain his composure at all times to achieve sincerity.Third, a man of must choose his words carefully so that there is never a hint of impropriety in his manner or actions.Government plays an important role in establishing the behavior of citizens within a society, according to Confucius.He wrote that the conduct of government officials must be correct at all times because if it is not, rules will not be obeyed, orders will not be followed.Government must protect its society at all costs and without rules of preservation, chaos inevitably results.In other words, government should be a "leadership by example."

The Book of Mencius is an extension of Confucianism offered by Meng Tzu (Master Meng), who is known by the Latin name Mencius (0 B.C.- 05 B.C.). His is the longest of the Four Books and is primarily concerned with nonviolence and achieving goodness through wisdom. Mencius contended that human nature was essentially good and that government needs only to reinforce the positive attributes that already existed.If government failed in doing so and became an instrument of corruption, Mencius advocated the dissolution of the government by any means necessary.Nonviolence is always the goal, but sometimes violence is a necessary evil that must be occasionally employed to keep government honest and to protect the rights of citizens.

The Doctrine of the Mean is the Confucian document of harmony.Man must preserve a sense of balance in his life by avoiding extremes (Cua, 17). Confucius adequately summarized this philosophy in the following passage "While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state of Equilibrium.When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of Harmony.This Equilibrium is the great root from which grow all human actions in the world, and this Harmony is the universal path that they all should pursue.Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish" ( "The Doctrine of the Mean").

Furthermore, unity must be sought in family relationships.Family relationships take up a large percentage of 'religious' community in Confucianism.According to Confucius, a harmonious family is a happy one "Happy union with wife and children is like the music of lutes and harps.When there is concord among brethren, the harmony is delightful and enduring.Thus may you regulate your family, and enjoy the pleasure of your wife and children" ("The Doctrine of the Mean").To achieve this harmony, the laws of universal obligation must be obeyed.Confucius wrote, "The duties of universal obligation are five and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three. The duties are those between sovereign and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder brother and younger, and those belonging to the intercourse of friends.Those five are the duties of universal obligation.

"Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy, these three are the virtues universally binding.And the means by which they carry the duties into practice is singleness" ("The Doctrine of the Mean").In other words, by satisfying the five universal obligation criteria, man can then achieve the single-mindedness necessary to live in harmony.

The fourth book of Confucianism is The Great Learning, which is a program of correct thinking which has been described as self-cultivation (Liu, 75-76).Of this, Confucius wrote, "The cultivation of the person depends on rectifying the mind may be thus illustrated If a man be under the influence of passion he will be incorrect in his conduct...When the mind is not present, we look and do not see; we hear and do not understand; we eat and do not know the taste of what we eat" ("The Great Learning").The premise behind The Great Learning is simply Man must first find order in his immediate surroundings.If a man is unable to regulate his family, how can he expect to govern the states citizens? Confucianism is, first and foremost, about common sense.If a man cannot control one or two people, how can he realistically expect to control the masses?

Confucianism ceases being just a philosophy because the rituals that have become so much a part of its practice qualify it as a religion.Over the years, the ethical teachings advocated by Confucius have been performed ritualistically and the three fundamental beliefs are identified as heaven (tien), jen and tao.Confucius differed from other thinkers of his day in that his religious attitudes, such as they were, bordered on agnostic (Yang, 1).He often wrote of heaven, but interpreted it as more of a moral power than as a place.Heaven, according to Confucius, is the omnipotent basis of ethics.

What has been referred to as the Mandate of Heaven is the Confucian concept of human destiny and the foremost authority on right and wrong.In Confucianism, if a man does not understand the moral order of the universe, he has no right to call himself a ruler.An example of Confucianism is provided in Religions East and West when the Shang king responsible for overthrowing the Hsia Empire said to the citizens in the famous Announcement of Tang, "The way of Heaven is to give blessings to the good and misfortunes to evildoers.Heaven has sent down calamities on the ruler of Hsia in order to make clear his sins.I, the little child, following the Mandate of Heaven that gave me clear power, did not dare to forgive him. The criminal was finally degraded and subjugated.The Mandate of Heaven is always correct" (Liu, 8)

The Book of Mencius explores the Mandate of Heaven even further by advocating revolution to rid the state of an undesirable ruler who loses sight of the Mandate of Heaven.In an often quoted passage (Book I., pt.ii., c.viii), it was written, "King Seuen of Tse asked Is it true that Tang banished Kee and that King Wu slew Chow? Mencius replied History tells us so. The king asked May a minister put his sovereign to death? Mencius said He who outrages benevolence is called a robber; he who outrages righteousness, is called a ruffian.The robber and ruffian we call a mere fellow.I have heard of the execution of the fellow, Chow, but I have not so heard of ones sovereign being put to death" (Dawson).

The second element of Confucianism is the Chinese term jen.Chinese concepts cannot be adequately defined by one or two corresponding English words.The closest description to jen is the word good, in terms of how it relates to God and heaven, but that, too, is probably inaccurate.Jen may also be used to describe the natural order of things.Philosophically speaking, jen is that human quality which distinguishes man from animals (Titus and Smith 8).In other words, qualities often described as characteristics of man like courage, loyalty and integrity are representative of jen in Confucianism.

The third tenet of Confucianism is tao, which again is too complex to be described in a few English words, but basically is a way in which things should be done.When Confucius referred to tao, he was undoubtedly describing way to heaven.By studying and understanding tao as practiced by the ancients, the Confucians believe that they can live harmoniously by following their ruler and making their family happy which provides them with a secure environment.Confucius believed that corruption existed among the government officials of his time because they did not properly honor tao, which explained their negative and destructive behavior (Nivison, 41).In spiritual terms, Taoism seeks to achieve total unity with the universe.To have any hope of achieving harmony, man must strive to make himself one with his surroundings.Taoism resembles Henry David Thoreaus concept of the natural man because it emphasizes simplicity as the means of maintaining harmony.

The Neo-Confucian movement can be traced back to the Sung dynasty that lasted from 60 until 17, and broadened the Confucian philosophy to include parts of Buddhism and Taoism ("Neo-Confucianism").These scholars were primarily ethical philosophers who believed that incorporating Buddhist and Taoist concepts into Confucianism offered a more comprehensive theory of human nature and the order of the universe.The Neo-Confucian movement spawned two schools of philosophy -- the li school of law advocated by Chu Hsi and the rival hsin school of the mind embraced by Wang Yang-ming.

According to Chu Hsi, everything in nature is composed of two forces -- li, which is the universal concept of law; and chi, which is "the substance from which all material things are made" ("Neo-Confucianism").Although chi may be subject to change, li always remains constant.Man can only achieve a semblance of purity according to Chu Hsi if he has an understanding of li, or the natural order of all things in the world.

Contrary to Chu Hsis school of Neo-Confucianism was Wang Yang-mings hsin school that emphasized the mind rather than law.According to hsin Neo-Confucianism, natural law does not exist as a separate entity.It begins, as does everything else in the mind.Without the mind, there is nothing.Man can only seek harmony through quiet contemplation and meditation.He cannot understand the world or his place in it without stimulating the mind for all concepts originate within the mind.

The Ching dynasty which existed from 1644 until 11 introduced yet another school of thought into Neo-Confucianism.Ching scholars sought to "get back to basics" with the emphasis reverting back to the teachings of Confucius ("Neo-Confucianism").The Ching scholars developed a critical interpretation of the Confucian Classics by utilizing philosophic and scientific forms of methodology, history and even archaeology ("Neo-Confucianism").Metaphysics was also introduced to Neo-Confucianism and several groups advocated adopting the Confucian philosophy as the official religion of China at the beginning of the 0th century.However, with the Chinese Revolution of 111, Confucianism in any of its incarnations suddenly seemed outdated.Without the ruling monarchy and the radical changes taking place within the family and social structures of China, Confucianism rapidly began losing its popular appeal.

Despite Confucianism being considered pass by the Chinese elitists, it still warrants serious study today because of its concentration on ethics.Confucianism differs from other philosophies in that it is an inherently positive philosophy.Both Confucius and Mencius believed that benevolence was an essential component of human nature (Liu, 11).Confucianism places its emphasis not upon rules and regulations like the Ten Commandments, but rather in a moral person.Confucianism recognizes that laws do not exist in and of themselves but are used to govern men.Therefore, the emphasis should always be on man rather than the laws themselves.

Moral character is not only desirable, but absolutely necessary in Confucianism.The moral person who personifies these honorable qualities is described in Chinese as chun-tzu.In the time of Confucius, this term was usually used to describe the son of a nobleman or prince.In English, a chun-tzu would be a gentleman or aristocrat.As with all concepts in Chinese philosophy, the chun-tzu has a counterpart, and this is the hsiao-jen, which is loosely translated to describe the common man (Wei-Ming, 88).

This type of man is deemed common because he is one of questionable morals.On the topic of what constitutes the superior man, it states in the Confucian Analects, "Tsze-kung asked what constituted the superior man.The Master said, He acts before he speaks, and afterwards speaks according to his actions" (II, 4).In other words, the moral or superior man in Confucianism is one who is willing to practice what he preaches.This makes him desirable both as a ruler and as a human being.

Although not preoccupied with rules as such, there are certain ethical regulations that are an integral part of Confucianism.The ultimate virtue in Confucianism is hsiao or filial piety. This is important in understanding the Chinese family structure because filial piety is respect for ones parents to the point of submissiveness (Dawson, 4).There is a Confucian document known as The Canon of Filial Piety in which it was written, "The Master said, Filial piety is the basis of virtue and the source of culture" (Dawson, 56).Filial piety also included a period of prolonged mourning at the death of either parent.Largely because of Confucianism, the Chinese family structure is the opposite of Western families in that children are always expected to be solicitous of their parents instead of vice-versa.Respect is something children learn from their earliest ages and this is taught in the home, not in the classroom.

To achieve filial piety in Confucianism, there are five relationships (which were discussed earlier in the description of perfect virtue) that are necessary to achieve both harmony in society as well as in the household.Although it is assumed that filial piety implies that the parents are always dominant and the children are always submissive, this is not necessarily true.This is overly simplistic and ignores that there are responsibilities expected of both.This is best expressed in the following passage quoted in Religion in Chinese Society from The Book of Rites "What are the things which men consider right? Kindness on the part of the father, and filial duty on that of the son; gentleness on the part of the elder brother, and obedience on that of the younger; righteousness on the part of the husband, and submission on that of the wife; kindness on the part of the elders, and deference on that of juniors; with benevolence on the part of the ruler, and loyalty on that of the minister; -- these ten are the things which men consider right".

Confucianism provided the Chinese people with a blueprint for moral behavior for 000 years.It remains a valuable social philosophy because it recognizes the importance of each member of society.Each member has a distinct purpose, and of each member, much is expected.In turn, the government is expected to lead by example, and if it cannot do so, it must be overthrown.Parents sacrifice much to provide for their families, and in return, children treat them with respect.Throughout their lives, they never forget what their parents have done for them, and always honor them accordingly.Confucianism is not an extremist philosophy, but rather, an optimistic middle-of-the-road approach that promises man if he lives in harmony with nature and his fellow man, he will achieve happiness on earth and find his way to eternal happiness in heaven.

"Confucian Schools of Thought."

http//deall.ohio-state.edu/jin./c1/refs/confism.htm

"Neo-Confucianism"

http//deall.ohio-state.edu/jin./c1/refs/confism.htm

"Confucius" http//www.friesian.com/confuci.htm

Confucian Analects(500 B.C.)

http//mars.superlink.net/user/fsu/analect1.html

The Great Learning(500 B.C.)

http//mars.superlink.net/user/fsu/daxue.html

The Doctrine of the Mean(500 B.C.) http//classics.mit.edu/Confucius/doctmean.html

Cua, A. S.Moral Vision and TraditionEssay in Chinese Ethics.Washington D.C.The Catholic University of America Press, 18.

Dawson, Miles. Conduct of Life Ethics of Confucius.New York Carlton House, 115.

Liu, Shu-hsien.Understanding Confucian Philosophy Classical and Sung-Ming. Westport Greenwood Press, 18.

Nivison, David S.The Ways of Confucianism Investigations in Chinese Philosophy. ChicagoOpen Court, 16.

Titus, Harold H., and Smith, Marilyn S. Living Issues in Philosophy (Sixth

Edition). New York D. Van Nostrand Company, 174.

Wei-Ming, Tu.Confucian Thought Selfhood As Creative Transformation.

Albany State University of New York Press, 185.

Yang, C.K.Religion in Chinese Society.Berkeley University of

California Press, 161.

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The real fortune cookie

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One of the most important decisions a man ever makes is to ask his girl to marry him.Believe it or not most of us, at least it is true for me, put a lot of thought into this life altering commitment, even if we get the delivery all messed up.I planned my proposal out as best as I possibly could, but according to my wife I still missed a couple of the fine details.

I wanted the event to be just that, an event my wife would always remember and want to tell people about.I just couldn't "pop the question" at McDonalds.I needed to pick just the right, time and setting.I decided to pick her birthday.This was not done to be cheap; rather I hoped it would be the one birthday she would always remember.Then came my first setback, I was told I had to deploy to Florida and would be gone on her birthday.I would have to pick a different day.Then as fate would have it, I was dropped from the deployment two days before I was to leave and would be able to go forward with my plans.

I also wanted to do something special and unique.I was making fortune cookies when it came to me.I would make two fortune cookies, the first with the proposal in it and the second with the ring in it.This would achieve all of my goals of being romantic, different and memorable.I carefully baked a sheet of fortune cookies, removed them from the oven at just the right time, and then quickly placed the fortunes inside the cookies and folded and bent them into their traditional shape before they cooled and hardened.Perfect, this was going to be the best proposal ever.

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On the afternoon of her birthday I called her from my apartment, although she thought I was calling from Florida.She had gone from Memphis to Little Rock to stay with her sister while I was deployed.She asked if I minded if she went out with her friends to celebrate her birthday.I asked her not to and to stay at home as a surprise was sure to find her there.She put up an argument and I was fearful that she would not be there when I arrived in a couple hours.When I arrived at her sisters' house I heard her niece announce my arrival.She answered the door surprised to see me.I told her to get dressed to go out to dinner but would not tell her were.She repeatedly inquired as to where we were going.I ensured her I had planned a full evening for her.She took what seemed like eons to get ready as I waited impatiently, hoping everything would be as wonderful as I had planned it to be.Finally she appeared from the back of the house ready to go.My mind was buzzing and I literally tingled with anticipation.

I took her to a Thai restaurant in Little Rock, and we had a quiet dinner.I wished her a happy birthday and told her how I had managed to get out of the deployment at the last minute and then decided to surprise her for her birthday.Little did she know, I had a much bigger surprise in store.As we were nearing the end of dinner I excused myself to go to the bathroom.I slipped out to my car and retrieved the fortune cookies I had hidden under the drivers seat.I found our waitress and gave her the cookies and asked that she bring them with our bill in a couple of minutes.I then returned to our table like nothing had happened.The next few minutes seemed to take an eternity to pass.Disastrous thoughts of the cookies getting lost or thrown away raced through my head.Finally the waitress appeared with the bill and cookies, my cookies.My girlfriend looked at the cookies suspiciously, commenting on their large size and the fact that they were slightly darker in color than the commercially prepared ones you usually get.I told her to open the slightly smaller one first and then the larger of the two.She insistently inquired as to why it made a difference which one she opened up first.Finally giving in, she opened the smaller of the two cookies.She pulled out the fortune and read it to herself.It read, "Lynn I love you, will you marry me?"She looked up and said, "Ya, right."Oh my god, she doesn't think I was serious.I told her I meant it, but she still did not believe me.All of my careful planning was quickly falling apart.How could I have foreseen this?I asked her to open the second cookie.She picked it up, still not believing I was sincere and genuine in my proposal.She cracked the cookie towards one end, failing to reveal the ring that had been so carefully placed inside.She looked at me and showed me that there was no fortune to be found.I pleaded for her to break the cookie in the middle.She did, and when the ring came into view she dropped the cookie, ring and all, into her sweet and sour sauce.She looked at me silently for a few long seconds, and then she got up and fled to the bathroom simply stating that she would be right back.As she disappeared into the ladies room, I suddenly came to the realization that she had not responded in any recognizable way to my proposal.Oh my god, could she be in the ladies room contemplating how she was going to tell me no.I had not even considered that she may not accept my proposal until that moment.She stayed in the ladies room for at least 15 minutes, and let me tell you it was the longest ¼ hour of my life.When she finally came out she sat down and simply stated, "You make me so happy."Not yet sure if she was accepting my proposal, I said, "You didn't say yes yet."She looked at me and said, "YES" and then came around to me and held me tight to her.What a relief.

All of my careful planning and preparation did not include the possibility that she might not accept my proposition.I don't know what I would have done had she said no.She later informed me I had missed on major detail in all of my planning.I had forgotten to get on my knees.

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Globalization Lincoln Douglas Debate

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"Humans, Thomas Hobbes stated, need to "confer all their power and strength upon one man, or upon one assembly of men, that they may reduce all their wills by plurality of voices, unto one voice."

Resolved, when in conflict, globalization ought to be valued above national sovereignty.

The following affirmative case is based on the value of societal advancement and is measured my value criterion of social unification.

The following definitions are offered to clarify this round

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Social unification different societies and communities working together to creat a better society.

Globalization to make global, including but not limited to free trade and open markets.

Contention One Globalization promotes international peace. As Thomas Hobbes stated in his social contract, humans, without someone watching over them, are prone to destroy each other. This is why societies establish governments in the first place, because they are not adequately protected without them. Neighboring societies and their heads of states or dictators are constantly threatening each other over territory and national resources. Sometimes these conflicts begin as irrational attempts to further aggravate personal vendettas.

If the majority of the world acted collectively towards world peace, international bickering would become obsolete. For example, when UN weapon inspectors went to Iraq to look for illicit nuclear weapons they were making a movement towards peace and disarmament. When international bickering becomes obsolete, the emphasis of the nations would shift from military gain to that of societal and social advancement.

Less than one per cent of what the world spends today on weapons could be used to put every single child into school by next year. Dwight D. Eisenhower stated that "Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies in the final sense a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, and those who are cold and not clothed. The world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists.. under the cloud of war."

Over the last century alone, the forces of globalization have been among those that have contributed to a huge improvement in human welfare, including raising countless millions out of poverty. Going forward, these forces have the potential to continue bringing great benefits to the poor and needy, as well as pulling our most genius scientist out of a bunker making bombs and putting them

into the lab curing aids.

Contention two Globalization would largely improve the lives of all on the globe, especially open trade in a globalized sense.

It would make new products and ideas universally available. Society overall would advance. Open trade among nations contributes a more peaceful world, because it create a sort of interdependence among nations. This interdependence will certainly never stop war, but it will make it extremely less likely because these nations will not want to jeopardize their own economies over trivial personal vendettas or territories. National resources would be easier to get, and be traded without costly tariffs.

Because developing countries need trade partners to survive in the international arena it is important to avoid things like war, thus peace is encouraged.

Right now, the world has such extreme poverty and fluctuating trade barriers. Simples studies who that there is enough food on the earth to feed its people, and then some. Yet currently the lives of 1.7 million children will be needlessly lost this year because their governments have not reduced poverty levels for them, or because they have expected their governments to do so.

These staggering numbers suggest indeed that man cannot care for himself properly if different nations are fluctuating trade tariffs and withholding food to gain political power. Perhaps if trade was simply made a global activity, the market would become a freedom for capital, goods, and service, where the market is self-regulating, thus allowing the trickle-down notion of wealth distribution. It also includes the deunionizing of labor forces and removes of any impediments towards capital mobility. Opening up international trade has helped many counties grow far more quickly than they would otherwise have done. International trade helps economic development when a nation's exports drive its economic growth. Exported growth was the centerpiece of the industrial policy that enriches much of Asia." According to Linda Lim, "The most globalized developing nations, in East and Southeast Asia, grew the most rapidly allowing poverty rates to fall by 174 million while the least globalized, the Middle East and Africa, grew the least. All developing regions grew more rapidly than developed countries, which grew more slowly narrowing the income gap."

We are looking at a massive breakthrough in trade and advancement of mankind when globalization is accepted.

My third contention is that globalization ensures more legitimate government.

If the countries on the globe taking different stabs at different types of governments, people are going to be abused. There is going to be tyranny, dictatorship, and oppression. A globalized check and balance for the world will provide more

With a unified communities and a globalized world the advancement of society is not limited. I submit for your examination today that Globalization is not only possible, it is rapidly approaching. For these reasons I affirm today's resolution. I stand ready and open for points of clarification and cross examination.

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Are Canadians as a society doing enough to prevent the exploitation of children in the workplace?

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Child Labor is a continuing and complex issue. It is a pervasive problem throughout the world, especially in developing countries. There are many reasons that contribute to the issue of child labor. There is no international agreement defining child labor and this makes the limits very ambiguous. Although most nations have some type of restrictions, many have different minimum age requirements and varying regulations based on the type of labor. At what point does helping the family out become work? Also adding to the complexity of the issue, is the fact that governments are not keen to measure and report on a phenomenon that is officially not supposed to exist. Until there is global agreement that can isolate cases of child labor, it will be very hard to abolish.Therefore as a society we need to recognize and improve the conditions in which children are operating.

The International Labor Organization reports that global figures in child labor estimate 50 million children in the workforce. This number not only excludes children in the industrialized world but also does not measure the child workers hidden from the statistician's view. Children that are working in unmonitored informal and rural sectors and girls that are doing domestic work are examples of the children not being accounted for. Including such numbers would push the total up to near 500 million. Africa and Asia together account for over 0 percent of total child employment. While the most extreme examples of exploitative child labor tend to come from Asia, an African child is more likely to work. Asia is led by India, which had 44 million child laborers, giving it the largest child workplace in the world. In Pakistan, 10 percent of all workers are between the ages10 and 14. Nigeria has 1 million child workers. It is also common in South America. For example, there are 7 million children working in Brazil. (ILO 1).

Children are forced to work at a young age for many reasons. The most common reason involves poverty. Some children can be a major contributor to their family's income and insure the survival of themselves as well as their families. Another reason behind child labor is lack of access to education in these developing countries. They seek these employment opportunities simply because there is no access to schools (distance, or no school at all). When there is access to the low quality of education, most children find it unnecessary to even go because they feel it would be a waste of time and instead find work. For some parents in developing countries, they may have children merely because they can be profitable. Children seem to be much less of an economic burden in developing versus developed countries.

In every country rich or poor, it is the nature of the work and the treatment of the children which would determine whether or not they are exploited, not just the plain fact that they're working. As Chris Brazier explains, "The idea that childhood should be an entirely work-free zone is a luxurious and rather sentimental western idea." However, part time work by richworld children in their early teens is routine and considered socially acceptable. Few people would view'child labor ' jobs as dangerous or exploitative in our western society. A job like delivering newspapers where children are paid less than adult rates and child-labor laws are infringed by early and late deliveries are not often considered to be a form of abusing children in the workplace. Often ethic minorities in our western society are employed in hazardous conditions in agriculture and garment workshops for example. People in the "rich world" tend to assume child labor, like slavery, is something that was abolished in the rich world about a century ago. Some believe it only exists now in developing countries and this certainly leads them to feel they can preach from the moral high ground to poorer countries still looked in their medieval castles of ignorance and backwardness. Child labor is a complex issue simply because it can viewed in two lights. There is a very dark and disturbing side to child labor and there is some child labor that is not bad at all. Most of the world's hazardous and exploitative child labor does in fact take place in the south where at it's most extreme it is a modern form of slavery. From the children forced to labor on the sugar cane estates of northeast Brazil to those the Burmese military government has ordered to work on a new railroad. There are many cases of uncivilized and inhumane child labor taking place in our world. There is one highly damaging type of work though which is extremely evident in all countries and it would be the ungodly child prostitution. It is illegal but the laws tend not to be enforced and the economic and social conditions that produce it go unchallenged. Somehow nobody is ever convinced this is a form of child labor.

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Here in Canada we have child laws and rights protecting our children against child labor. Although we have young adults in our workforce, we have laws protecting their rights as an employer in our society.

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Explaining the Past 3000 years: a Look at Charles O. Hucker's Thoughts on Chinese History and the Patterns they Prouduce

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What makes Chinese history such a difficult area of study is its sheer size and scope. To put it in a more familiar perspective, from the time English settlers dropped anchor and settled the first settlement at Jamestown in 1607 all the way up to the Presidency of George W. Bush, the Chinese have experienced that period of time eightfold. The problem with 000 years of history is how to record it. For some, the easiest way would be to account for all the dynasties and their emperors. But as Charles O. Hucker puts it, "presenting Chinese history solely as a succession of dynasties is even duller and less meaningful than presenting American history." (Hucker, 0) The only way to get a clear picture of the history as a whole is to transcend the conventional practice of a chronological study, and find other patterns. Charles O. Hucker in his book, China to 1850 A Short History has done just that and found a guide to understanding Chinese history in the examination of the dynastic cycle, unity and disunity, southern expansion, and northern invasions.

The dynastic cycle is just one of the four patterns that Hucker proposes as legitimate ways to look at Chinese history. The Chinese people look at their history as a succession of families that, in one way or another, seize power and monopolize the throne. Unlike the Western powers, the Chinese emperors did not believe themselves to be preordained at birth to rule. The duty to rule only fell upon an individual if Heaven deemed the previous ruling family as unfit. The construct of the Mandate of Heaven is an ideal way to legitimatize a new ruling family. Since the foundations of the Mandate can be traced back to China's prehistory, history is soon turned into mythology. With a sort of supernatural reverence, the general population sees the transfer of power as truly reasonable, not necessarily because they believe in a higher power, but because they have known no other political shift.

Unity and disunity go hand in hand when talking about the creation of Chinese history. Perhaps a contradiction, the times of disunity did just as much to help the propagation of "Chineseness" as the times when China was united. If it was not for the collapse of the Han dynasty around 00 CE, the Buddhist religion would never have found a place in Chinese minds. While looking at the long established Confucian ideals that the Han so successfully used in setting precedent in everything from government to social life, it would seem impossible for Buddhism to take hold. For one, it was completely foreign in nature. With their ideas of karma, reincarnation, and nirvana, and was a far departure from the familiar, logical preaching of Confucius and Mencius. Buddhism also did not have a practical application to the government as Confucianism did, and offered no way of solving problems of the state. But the Han state began to break down with help from natural disasters, popular uprisings, eunuch politics at the court, and a number of increasing separatist warlords. (Hucker, 75-77) Civil war ensued, and as a result, the population dropped to from 60 million to 15 million people. (Class notes) As China looked for answers in a time of chaos, Buddhism fit in nicely with its Four Noble Truths, one of which is "all life is characterized by suffering".

When Hucker comes to his ideas on southern expansion as a pattern of Chinese history, he seems to be lacking in his argument. Common sense would tell you that the Chinese people could only go so far south, and that eventually, all that could be discovered, would be discovered. While southern expansion can be used to help elaborate certain dynasties or time periods, it does not contribute much in the explanation of the later dynasties such as the Ch'ing, or the shorter lived Sui and Yuan dynasties. However, when expansion was taking place, it does contribute tremendously to the Chinese state. For example, the Grand Canal linked the Yellow and Yangtze rivers and then southward to Hangchow and northward to the Peking. (Hucker, 87) With its completion under the Tang in the early 7th century, the canal made China a more connected nation in economic and political ways. In the pre-industrial age, in order to move goods, it had to be done either with beasts of burden or over water, and obviously, with the construction of the canal, trips from northern China and southern China would take a considerable shorter amount of time. Not only that, but it made available the rich southern lands for rice cultivation. (Class notes) In turn, unlikely country villages soon turned into bustling metropolitan cities thus creating bigger markets for farmers and merchants.The canal also helped connect people with each other. The flow of information helped educate the common people in the rural areas of China in everything from new religious interpretations to court gossip. The Grand Canal literally turned China into a more accessible country forcing future emperors to be wary of how they ruled, because what political intercessions they once could cover up, could now be fodder for a widespread, well organized rebellion.

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Eastern Asia is not as racially uniform as some people might think. While to some, an Asian is just an Asian, there are literally dozens of different races that inhabit China proper and its surrounding regions. While they might look the same, the Chinese are vehemently opposed to their neighbors to the north. As Hucker puts it, the northerners, "had a nomadic, herding life-style that made them and the agrarian Chinese implacably hostile to one another". (Hucker, ) But as history provides, some of the most significant events that have shaped China's history have occurred while under Mongol and Manchurian rule (the Yuan and the Ch'ing dynasties).While the Yuan were not the most successful of dynasties domestically, they did affect the country much in the same way as periods of disunity did they opened a path for new ideas and new interpretations. For example, the Mongols were notably very hospitable to foreigners, the famous of which was Marco Polo. (Hucker, 11) When Polo's account of China and the great Khans became public in Europe, there was an instant fascination with China's exotic culture and resources. Unforeseeably, when Europe's ships find their way to China, they demand trade concessions. And since the Europeans have nothing the Chinese want, trade is done only out of pity.Soon enough though, the British will find their way into China vies-a-vi opium, and after a war in which the Chinese lose in 184. To make matters worse

"To avoid more serious humiliation the Ch'ing court made peace with England, and soon negotiated treaties with other trading nations, on such terms that China became exposed to still more contacts with the rude, importunate "foreign devils". (Hucker, 15)

With a completely different attitude that the Mongols, the Manchurians seized power peacefully from the Ming, and instead of pressuring the Chinese to become Mongolian, the Manchurians began to adopt Chinese culture. (Hucker, 146) While under the rule of perhaps the two most beloved and longest ruling emperors K'ang-hsi and his grandson Ch'ien-lung changed China for the better. K'ang-hsi took exhausting efforts to guarantee honesty in government and to further racial harmony and personally planned the campaigns that suppressed Rebellion of the Three Feudatories in the south. (Hucker, 14,150) Under Ch'ien-lung, all forms of literature and art flourished, while militarily, he expanded Chinese territory as far west as Tibet. (Hucker, 150-15)

Hucker does an admirable job in trying to fit in so much information in fewer than 00 pages. But in reality, he contradicts himself because there is no "short history" when it comes to presenting 000 years to the reader. While some historians can lead you down a path of minutia and bore the reader to death, Hucker does the opposite. He summarized too frequently and it leaves the aspiring historian unfulfilled when he broadly generalizes the Han dynasty to a mere twenty pages. While Hucker's book is by far not a complete and through history, it is perfect as a refresher of sorts. When writing this paper, it seemed as if I used his book more fore reference, an encyclopedia of sorts, instead of a definitive reference of historical insight.

Please note that this sample paper on Explaining the Past 3000 years: a Look at Charles O. Hucker's Thoughts on Chinese History and the Patterns they Prouduce is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Explaining the Past 3000 years: a Look at Charles O. Hucker's Thoughts on Chinese History and the Patterns they Prouduce, we are here to assist you.Your persuasive essayon Explaining the Past 3000 years: a Look at Charles O. Hucker's Thoughts on Chinese History and the Patterns they Prouduce will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Ireland - easter rebellion

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The years leading up to the Easter Rebellion in Ireland in 116 were marked by significant political, cultural and military developments. The Easter Rebellion was a complete failure but without it, Ireland might never have been free from British Rule.

Conflict between Ireland and Britain commenced in 116, when Henry II attempted to invade Ireland and was unsuccessful. In the centuries that followed the British made many attempts to take control of Irish lands to build a superior empire. During the years of 1485 to 160, when the Tudor monarchs were ruling Britain, Elizabeth I introduced a policy, the "Plantation Policy". This policy seized land from Irish Catholics and redistributed it among Protestants. This policy initiated 'sectarianism' that would distress Ireland for hundreds of years. Sectarianism is the view that one religious belief has superiority over others. In 1800, the British Parliament passed the 'Act of Union'. This Act removed Irelands right to have its own parliament.

In Ireland in the 180's 'new nationalism' emerged. This was in view of the fact that in the period leading up to the First World War there had been a move towards Home Rule for Ireland. Home Rule would have given the Irish their own parliament that would have the capacity to make laws relating to domestic issues, issues that affected the Irish population. Major decisions regarding the economy and foreign affairs would still be made in London. But the 'Act of Union' prevented this.

During 11, the Irish Citizen Army (ICA) was formed during the Great Dublin Lockout, as a result of police violence against striking transport workers protesting, by James Connelly a socialist with the aim of creating a socialist state independent of British Rule. Also in 11 Irish Nationalist members of British Parliament created a campaign to have a Home Rule bill passed for Ireland. The two attempts at this made previously were unsuccessful. In 114, the bill was passed in both houses of British Parliament and was predicted to become law by the end of that year. The Ulster Unionists were a group created to defend the interests of Irish Protestants and were distressed regarding this. Irish nationalist groups observed this distress and were prepared to defend their rights. Irish nationalists were people that were dedicated to gaining independence for Ireland. Consequently the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) came into action. The IRB was a nationalist movement founded by James Stephens in 1858 with the aim of overthrowing British Rule and establishing an independent Irish republic. The IRB members were also known as the Fenians. This group was a small, underground, revolutionary body that planned and directed the 116 Easter Rebellion in Ireland in 116.

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In August 114, World War I broke out. Britain, France and Russia went to war against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Many Irishmen volunteered to fight for Britain in the cause that if they did, Home Rule would become inevitable. But in September of 114, the British government suspended the decision of the recently enacted Home Rule Bill until the war had come to an end. This suspension stimulated the growth of the ICA. The IRB decided to take advantage of Britain's involvement and preoccupation with the war. By the end of 114 they had armed themselves and were prepared for a nationwide uprising in support of Irish Independence. The date set was Easter 116.

In 115 the IRB formed the IRB Military Council. It was composed of seven membersThomas Clarke, Sean Mac Diarmada, Patrick Pearse, Eamonn Ceannt, Joseph Plunkett, James Connolly and Thomas MacDonagh. These men declared themselves to be the 'Provisional Government' of the Irish Republic when the rebellion began.

Sir Roger Casement was a dedicated supporter of Irish Independence and he was able to acquire German military supplies for the use in the uprising. He also obtained financial support from the great Irish population living within the United States of America. But the British caught Casement in April 116 and the military supplies and was arrested and the supplies were seized. Even though this was a major setback, Patrick Pearse, the leader of the Irish Volunteers and James Connolly, leader of the ICA prepared to proceed.

Action began around 100 pm on Monday, April 4, a bank holiday in Ireland, when approximately 000 men lead by Pearse gained control of the Dublin General Post Office (GPO) and other strategic points throughout the city. From their barricaded Post Office headquarters, the rebels proclaimed the Independence of Ireland with the creation of a provisional government with Pearse as president. Supplementary positions were occupied by rebels during the night and by the morning of April 5, they controlled a considerable part of Dublin. On this day, the British counteroffensive began. The British brought in heavy artillery and reinforcements. Martial Law was proclaimed throughout Ireland. Martial Law is brought into action when a situation arises when ordinary law is suspended and the military establish and enforce laws restricting people's freedoms. As more than half of the rebels were unarmed the British forces began to steadily dislodge the Irish from their positions. By the morning of Aprilthe GPO was under violent attack. Pearse surrendered unconditionally on April , seeing the futility of further resistance. Casualties included about 440 British troops and about 75 Irish. Most of the leaders of the rebellion were sentenced to death, some were sentenced to life imprisonment. This rebellion was the first in a series of events that instigated the establishment of the 'Irish Free State'. This Irish Free State was the predecessor of the Republic of Ireland.

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Buddhism

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BUDDHISMTHE ROAD OF COMPASSION

English 1-05

Monday November , 00

"Now this, O Bhikkus, is the noble truth concerning the origin of suffering.Verily, it is that thirst, causing the renewal of existence, accompanied by sensual delight, seeking satisfaction now here, now there that is to say, the craving for the gratification of the passions, or the craving for the life, or the craving for success…. Now this, O Bhikkus, is the noble truth concerning he destruction of suffering, verify, it is the destruction, in which no passion remains, of this very thirst; the laying aside of the getting rid of, the being free from. The harboring no longer of this thirst…Now this, O Bhikkus, is the noble truth concerning suffering.Birth is attended with pain, decay is painful, death is painful, Union with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the pleasant; and any craving that is unsatisfied, that too is painful…Now this, O Bhikkus, is the noble truth concerning the way which leads to the destruction of sorrow.Verily, it is this noble eightfold path; that is to say right views; right aspirations; right speech; right conduct; right livelihood; right effort; right mindfulness; and right contemplation." (The DhammacakkappavattanaSutta).

Buddhism is frequently criticized as a religion lacking in social ethics because it is primarily concerned with personal salvation.However, a scrutiny of Buddhist teachings on personal conduct will find that they do feature principles that can be interpreted and applied to a social ethical theory.Let's have an overview of Buddhism, and what it means to be a Buddhist? Buddhism has always intrigue me and through this project I was able to gain a better understanding to what it means to actually be Buddhist.Using the Internet as well as texts I was able to gain a slight background in Buddhism to aid me in my quest.

Buddhist tradition holds that soon after the death of Gautama, the founder of this religion, who lived, in southern India in the sixth century B.C.E. By most standard he had no material need and knew no misery, married and had a son, he lived a good life, sheltered behind the wall of his home.But on a couple of trip away from his palace he encountered the depth of human suffering, each time affected by a different person an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a monk.He fled his home an adopted a homeless path, giving up his comfortable life. He failed to find peace. Then one day he settle under a famed bohi tree, cowing to meditate until he had solved the problem of suffering, forty day and forty nights later he achieved enlighment and became Buddha, now this sound familiar."And immediately the spirit impelled him to go into the wilderness, so he continued in the wilderness forty days and nights being tempted by Satan" (Mark 1 verse1). Throughout the rest of his life, the taught an eightfold path of "gaining oneself by losing oneself."

Sickness, old age, and death the concerned that led him to seek "truth" are always with us. Buddhism is concerned about maintaining serenity and satisfaction in the face of these undesirable, but unavoidable, moments.Buddha is not the savior but a guide on the path of enlightenment that one walks alone.

I journeyed to rural Washington, NJ in Warren County to the Tibetan Learning Center.Here, I was able to tour the facility and speak with the caretaker Joshua Cutler, a practicing Buddhist.Joshua has resided on the premises since 175 and is currently translating a tree-volume set of the Tibetan Scripture. Going through my research I was drawn by the serenity and gentle manner of Buddhists even in their depiction in the media.They seem to face the harshness of life with the most harmless ease, so I set off to find out why.First, there are some basic concepts that must be understood before even entering into a discussion of Buddhism; the law of karma and reincarnation are the driving force of the religion.These two principles are important to the foundation of Buddhism in its essence.

"Buddhism teaches the way to perfect goodness and wisdom without a personal God; the highest knowledge without a 'revelation';…the possibility of redemption without a vicarious redeemer, a salvation in which everyone is his own savior."(Bhikkhu Subhadra).

In Buddhist teaching, the Law of Karma states that for every event that occurs, there will follow another event whose existence is caused by the first.Further, this event will be pleasant or unpleasant depending on if the first event was skillful or unskillful.Unskillful events are those that are accompanied by craving, resistance, or delusions.Craving, resistance, and delusion are all pitfalls of life.Similarly, Christianity has the Seven Deadly Sins and the Ten Commandments to steer followers' form the dangers associated with certain actions or thoughts.A hell is used to depict ones outcome as a result of immoral actions.To balance this realm, Heaven is also a possible outcome for ones journey.It is ultimately ones actions that determine their placement into heaven or hell.It seems life is a test in which one can demonstrate where they belong by how they react to external elements.

The belief in Reincarnation is also a basis for Buddhism.Buddhist believes that one is reborn over and over again in the wheel of suffering until enlightenment is reached and you are liberated from rebirth.This circle of rebirth is driven not only by suffering but also by the Law of Karma.By generating good Karma one inches closer and closer to liberation, but by generating bad Karma on slips farther away from enlightenment.

I learned that there are two ways to view Buddhism__as a philosophy and as a religion.Essentially both are the same, their differences being the daily and seasonal religious practices performed by the religious.Both entities are based on the principles set forth by Gotama Buddha in the Four Noble Truths.1.Life is Suffering.Suffering is caused by attachment .Freedom from Attachment is the cure for Suffering4.Freedom from attachment is learned through the Eight Folds Path. With strict adherence to the eightfold Path detachment can be learned and thus, enlightenment can be attained.

At the Tibetan Learning Center when I spoke with Joshua, I first asked for a basic overview of Buddhism, he first approached the question through the Buddhist idea of ahisma, which means nonharm.A true Buddhist ventures through life trying to avoid causing suffering to any living thing, not an easy task through any scope of imagination.Joshua tried to explain that with this belief of nonharm there is almost a sliding scale ranging from nonharm to actually helping.This is true when in contact with any living thing.You do not generate good or bad karma by simply not harming; it is the neutral.You gain good Karma by going beyond nonharm by actually helping.By helping someone or something you doing a good deed, this generates merit.Alternately if you harm something you gain bad Karma and thus lose merit.It is not a complicated concept, but it is somewhat hard to explain.

The gaining of merit is also a major theme in Buddhism for it is necessary to break the wheel of suffering.Merit can be gained in many ways including study, good deeds, showing of respect, and meditative prayer.Through studying you gain knowledge and wisdom, which are seen as noble.Good deeds come from the more extreme form of nonharm; by helping another, merit is gained.Showing respect in Buddhism can be somewhat elaborate, an example being, the construction and circling of a stupa.A stupa is a monument commemorating the awakening of the Buddha, which also holds sacred objects.A Buddhist circles this monument clockwise as a show of respect.The more times the monument is circled the more merit is gained. Merit is also gained by meditation and prayer, for through these acts respect is shown and wisdom is gained

"God is the Light of the heaven and the earth; The likeness of His Light is as a niche wherein is a lamp kindled from a Blessed Tree, An olive that is neither of East nor of the West, whose well nigh would shine, even no fire touched it; Light upon Light." (Quran, 45).

After giving a general view Joshua went a little more in depth discussing the Buddhist beliefs of impermanence.This is one of the more difficult Buddhist concepts to grasp for those of the West.The concept of impermanence is that everything in this reality is a process; nothing is permanent.All things have a beginning that fluctuate to middle and finally subside to their end.Everything changes and it is our attempts to attach ourselves to impermanent things, and gain happiness there by that guarantee and perpetuates the cycle suffering.When one is finally freed from their attachment it is possible to continue on to the path of enlightenment.

Through the entire interview I couldn't help but think how different life would be if everyone followed the Buddha's teachings.If nonharm were basic in society we wouldn't have to worry, in effect, about anything.Not that life would be perfect, because there would still be problems, but a lot of the worry that we have comes from the fear of being harmed by another.I believe that anyone no matter the religion could grow by trying to live according to the teachings of the Buddha.It does not really encroach on other religious, minus few concepts, for the idea of a god is not really even broached and what harm could be done by living a life of nonharm.

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Grapes of Wrath

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As described in Hugh Holman's A Handbook to Literature, naturalism is portrayed as man's "endless and brutal struggle for survival" (7-). Nunnally Johnson and John Ford's movie The Grapes of Wrath portrays this same "animal nature of man," but also adds to the definition by showing the instinctive nature for people to live rather than die. The struggle of the Joad family through plot shows the animal instinct of man to adapt to continual change during hard times for an individual's survival, the lower working class of society shows through symbolism the need for man to help others for the survival of the whole population, and through the characterization of Ma and Pa shows the heavy emphasis that man puts on children during stressful times to insure the future survival of the whole species.

Throughout the movie the plot continually shows the struggles of the Joad family to survive for themselves and their families. From the very beginning of the movie the Joads are forced to move off the land that they have farmed for generations. Instead of simply giving up because the only life they have known has been taken away from them, the family continues to struggle for their own survival by moving to California. They refuse to give up, and instead opt to adapt to a new life. As the Joads travel to California they pass road signs, showing this same change from living in a rural farm community, to their new lives in California. The Joads also show that they are willing to go to any lengths in order to keep themselves and their family alive. They find work at the second camp they encounter, and despite the horrible living and working conditions, the Joads do not give up and continue to earn money for their family. Their only motivation is to make enough money so that their family will have enough food to eat. At the end of the movie the Joads show that they are not willing to let others support them, but they feel they are capable to make a living for themselves. The third camp that the Joads run into is well kept, nice, clean, and even has running water, a drastic change from other camps that they have seen. They have the opportunity to stay at this camp even though they are not able to fully support themselves, but they refuse to. Instead, the Joads choose to leave in search of work they are not even sure exists. They continue on their pursuit to find a good life, and are ready to endure any rough times that may come along the way.

All throughout the movie, people of the lower social class symbolize man's efforts to help others in hopes to guarantee their survival. A prime example is when the Joads stop at a store to buy bread. Pa Joad only has 10 cents, and the bread costs 15 cents. After some contemplation, the diner waitress decides to sell him the bread for only 10 cents, and also sells him candy forcents that actually costs 10 cents. Due to the Depression, everyone was short of money, but the lady still gave the Joads bread and candy even if it meant that she would have to pay up the difference. Ultimately, two truckers, who also don't have a lot of money to spare, give the cashier their extra change to compensate for what the Joads did not pay for to further emphasis the point that people were always sticking together and looking out for one another. Preacher Casey also shows that he is willing to make sacrifices for others during tough times. When Tom gets angry and punches a man, the Preacher tells the police that he is responsible so Tom will not have to suffer the consequence and go to jail. The Preacher proves that he is willing to give up his freedom for the common good. Other people also show willingness to help others during hard times. When Tom is working in the fields at the third camp, a farmer working with Tom warns him that police are going to stage a fight to try to shut Tom's camp down. The farmer not only saves the Joads, but he also saves the many others who also live at the camp. Although he could get in trouble for passing along this valuable information, he chooses to tell Tom anyway, in order to protect his fellow farmers from possible harm. The lower class of this society symbolize unity, and working towards the survival of an entire population. Tom Joad speaks on behalf of the working class when he says, "A man doesn't have a soul. He's just a piece of a whole."

Through the characters of Ma and Pa the heavy emphasis and the importance put on children to insure the survival or future generations can be clearly seen. Ma puts a lot of importance on Rose Ann Sharon's pregnancy, and often times says things like, "A woman always looks most beautiful when she is pregnant." She feels that the birth of a child is a beautiful thing, and deserves a lot of attention. Ma also puts the needs of children first when she is at the first camp. Ma decides to feed all the hungry children at the camp even though there is not even enough food for her own family. Ma shows that she has a lot of love, and sees a lot of value in the children because they will ultimately go on to shape her future. Pa also shows a great importance for children when he chooses to buy the two children of the family candy at a diner even though he is well aware that the family can't afford it. Pa wants to make sure that all the children are happy, and then only can he be satisfied to move on in his journey.

Throughout the movie The Grapes of Wrath, using the different literary elements, the movie shows the different forms of survival including the Joad's constant struggle for the survival of an individual, the lower class of society symbolizing the survival of an entire population, and Ma and Pa's characters representing the survival of the future, all dealing with the survival of an entire species. The movie is based on the instinct of all animals to survive despite falling " victim [to] forces beyond [its] control" (Holman 7-).

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The Move to Human Resource Management

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Along with the Thatcherite era and an emphasis away from collective bargaining, reduction in bureaucracy and a move from the collective to the individual, a new void in the personnel function required to be filled.

Thus, human resource management, or HRM, emerged as a practiced personnel function, promising flexibility, responsiveness and a marked increase in the value of the employee. Furthermore, with the reduction in heavy industries and increase in services and high technology, HRM promised to put emphasis on the individual and the longer-term strategic issues.

The push towards this seemingly ideological approach to personnel increased in the late eighties, arguably, due to increasing competitive pressures, increased globalisation and a generally harsher business environment. It is these factors that caused managers to want to enhance internal corporate effectiveness and thus improve external competitiveness. This entailed the maximisation of all resources, including the human resource.

However, the failure of personnel management to adequately promote to others the benefits of effectively managing people at work is also cited as a reason for the need for a new approach, a fact stated by Skinner (181). Legge (178) however suggested that the failure occurred at an even more fundamental level; personnel management as an activity has failed to develop an appropriate theoretical base, resulting in "…piecemeal textbook interventions, usually out of context with the needs of the organisation".

Defining Human Resource Management

There appears to be no single definition of the term human resource management that is accepted by both people management practitioners and the academic community. Furthermore, trade unionists argue that HRM is a slippery concept which means different things to different people (Monks, 14). With this fact underlined, to attempt to draw a qualitative judgement as to the impact of HRM practices in Britain can only be done with the knowledge that evidence cited may actually be referring to differing concepts and approaches.

Guest (187) refers to a model of HRM that is characterised by;

"...being people-orientated throughout with an ethic of respect for the individual, maximisation of individual talent, well developed well-integrated policies and practices, genuine consultation and involvement, and clear challenging goals with feedback".

However, it is argued that Guest's model does not identify the key difference between HRM and personnel management, namely a shift from a hands-on, fire fighting approach to a planning function of a company as part of an overall corporate strategy.

Legge (18) further supports this view, defining HRM as being a central strategic management task; it is the ability of a company to utilise its personnel at all levels to create and sustain a competitive advantage.

The above definition can be compared to a more procedural approach seen in Megginson's (17) definition of personnel management;

"…it is believed that the most significant aspect of personnel management is to be found through the direction and control of human resources of an organisation in its daily operations… the successful performance of the personnel function necessitates that each manager orient himself within his total business environment in order to help achieve the various organisational programs and objectives".

Thus, by comparing HRM with personnel management, we see that HRM is the achievement of a fit between management of the work force and the strategic thrust of the organisation, a notion reinforced by Harris (184);

"Successful companies guide and shape their companys culture to fit their strategy. One of the tools used to accomplish this shaping is the reinforcing of certain ideas, values and behaviours and discouraging others by means of human resource management activities".

However, this concept of fit has been identified by Legge (15) as one of several ambiguities and contradictions proliferating in HRM definitions. Does fit refer to the external integration of HRM with business strategy, as identified above, or the internal integration of employment policies?

Regardless of these ambiguities in the HRM definitions, it is clear that whilst personnel management is seen as a short-term solution, reacting to stimuli, HRM is founded on the idea that an organisation includes human resource factors within top-level corporate strategies and hence seeks to adopt a long-term view.

However, empirical evidence as to the extent of HRM implementation tends not to support the idea of top-level corporate human resources strategy integration. This is backed by findings from Storey (1) from a study of fifteen companies in Britain, where, in the majority of instances, there was a lack of a strong link between people management activities and an overall corporate plan. This fact is given further credence by Legge (15), who found that there was patchy implementation of practices designed to achieve flexibility and quality, and more emphasis on dealing with short-term issues and opportunities such as high unemployment rates, rather than "…any long term strategic considerations".

Given this lack of empirical support on a key distinguishing feature of HRM, doubts must be raised as to the claimed strategic shift from personnel management to HRM.

A Case of "Old wine in new bottles?"

It is highly common to find texts citing HRM as simply being variation on a single theme; that HRM is merely personnel management, under a new labeleloquently stated by Armstrong (187) as being "Old wine in a new bottle". Miller (18) concludes that any difference between HRM and personnel management remains confusing and confused. Possibly more insightful is Fowler (187), who states, "…what's new in HRM is not what it is, but who is saying it… HRM represents the discovery of personnel management by chief executives".

The fact, pointed out by Guest (187), that a number of personnel departments have become "human resource departments" without any observable changes in roles does not help. This is a practice mirrored in some long standing personnel management textbooks, where the title was changed to "human resource management", with little or no change in the actual content.

It is clear that there is no universally accepted description of the concept of HRM, although there are those who clearly have identified variations of HRM. Most notably, is Story (18), in his identification and classification of two types of HRM, namely 'hard' and 'soft'.

Summed up by Kessler et al (18), 'Hard' HRM puts the stress on the idea of a 'resource' that is something to be used dispassionately and in a formally rational manner, as with any other economic factor. 'Soft' HRM lays the stress on the term 'human', thus conjuring up echoes of the human relations school, and emphasises communication, motivation and leadership.

Further types of HRM have been identified by Keenoy (10), who makes reference to four variations; traditional - as practiced by the companies mentioned previously, which stresses the importance of people; neo-pluralist - which includes joint consultation, and the use of quality circles and increased employee involvement; strategic human resource management, this being concerned with the integration of human resource issues into corporate plans, and having little or nothing to do with actually managing people, and adversarial pluralism.

Whilst it can be seen that there is a certain amount of overlap between the definitions, there are also clear differences. What is striking, therefore, is that the same term is thus capable of signalling dramatically opposite sets of assumptions. Thus it is up to the individual or an organisation on how they interpret HRMan echoing of Monk's statement that HRM is practiced on individual interpretations. Legge (18) points out that, not only are there differences in the definitions of HRM, they exhibit central characteristics that may ultimately be irreconcilable.

A knock on effect is the difficulty in defining the level to which organisations practice HRM. Noon (1) states that it is not merely a case of semantics; it does matter which label is attached, as each carries different expectations and important practical implications.

What is clear however is that whichever variation of HRM is implemented by the organisation, its adoption will impact directly on the management of people at work. For some, this means a move away from institutionalisation and collectivism, and also a move away from the traditional view of employee relations management as being concerned with the making and administering of rules which regulate the employment relationship. This can be seen as an ideological shift away from the collective, and towards a unitarist and individualistic standpoint, within which employees commitment to the company replaces the traditional Western allegiance to the occupation (Wickens, 187).

Now that the differences between HRM and personnel management have been discussed, and more significantly, variations in HRM identifieddespite higher-level ambiguities and confusion, it is appropriate to consider actual empirical evidence as to the extent and nature to which HRM has been implemented in actual organisations.

Qualitative Evidence

Popular management theorists draw a clear link between company success or excellence and the practice of human resource management. Excellent organisations such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard and, at one point, Marks and Spencer are often cited as practicing HRM. However, it must be questioned as to whether it is appropriate for the tag "HRM" to be appointed to an organisation given the lack of a precise definition.

Despite this issue, not withstanding the considerable variations and implementations or HRM practices, there are undoubtedly indications that current management attitudes are consistent with many of the core elements of HRM, such as employee involvement, strategic human resources considerations and a move to devolve the personnel function to the line. Over the years, research has been carried out, looking at organisations that display these characteristics, and much can be learnt from these studies.

Research carried out by Hope-Hailey et al (17) looking at self-proclaimed HRM practicing organisations, namely Glaxo (pharmaceuticals), Citibank (investment banking), Hewlett-Packard (hi-tech), WH Smith (retail and distribution), Lloyds Bank (retail banking), BT (telecommunications), KJS (fast moving consumer goods) and an NHS Trust (healthcare) revealed several interesting facts.

It was found that in most companies, there was an HR function at the board level of the company, although HRM was seen as a secondary decision making process. Furthermore, it was seen to be more of a process rather than a strategy and emergent rather than intended. A further surprising indicator of this, is the fact that there were very few examples of written HR strategies, reinforcing the idea that;

"HR strategy formulation is much more of an interactive process, based on what is feasible in terms of organisational politics at board level and practical in terms of implementation".

A further emergent fact is that as the HR function has been devolved, in terms of decision making to line managers, the presence of the HR department has diminished. As a personnel manager of Citibank typifies;

"We operate fairly independently within broad parameters and guidelines. We don't behave as a department on a weekly basis… I don't think you could look at us and say we are a department… this puts us very close inside, next to the business".

However, it was found that the move did not reduce in any way the necessary bureaucracy associated with the personnel policies and procedures. Furthermore, the recruitment, selection and the operations of the pay systems were still tasks of a now diminished HR staff. This has led to an observable lack of co-ordination, with a lack of communication between an organisation's business units. The research cites examples of secretaries being released on one floor of a bank due to overstaffing, and secretaries being recruited on another, due to an increase in workload.

Paradoxically, however, this downsizing and devolution of HR departments has been accompanied by an increased regard for the function's contribution at a strategic level, despite it's diminished capability to deal with direct requests for help from staff; HRM is clearly regarded by management to be working, rather than non-management staff.

The researchers state three effects due to this paradox;

· Lower levels of staff often had little understanding of the role and purpose of the function;

· There was a clear identification for the worker's need in a neutral body or department within the organisation that could be consulted for neutral opinion;

· There seemed to be a demand for a counselling service within the organisation.

It is clear from the last two points that having spent decades shedding the image of personnel as the loyal opposition to management (Sisson, 18), once this has been actualised, there is exactly a demand for these very services. This is contrast to beliefs that with the advent of service based industries and individualisation of the workforce, the welfare mechanisms necessary in factories and heavy industries would become redundant.

This paradox links directly to management practices in relation to trade unions, and the impact HRM has and potentially will have on unionised organisations.

Human Resource Management and Trade Unions

The impact of HRM on trade unions is relative to the environment in which it is being implemented. Traditional British industrial relations, post-Donovan and pre-Thatcherism, has be characterised by pluralism and the institution of collective bargaining, both of which argued as conflicting in nature to HRM practice, which unitarism as it's core concept, which Guest (187) sees as marginalising unions.

This process of marginalisation is seen as likely due to the importance placed upon employee commitment and employee involvement within an HRM framework. If an organisation, through the adoption of HRM, stresses the importance of commitment to that organisation, the employee may be put in a position where they will find it necessary to offer allegiance to both the company and the union.

However, it is important to note that HRM is not by definition anti-union, although practices associated with it may well prove to be detrimental to unions in practice. Reinforcing this, Millward (14) found that HRM practices were actually more likely to be found in unionised companies.

Guest (18) has suggested that the perspective adopted by management will dictate the impact of HRM on unions. Where the management leans towards a more pluralistic approach then there will be no threat to unions. But where the approach shows accord with the values of hard HRM, namely, individualism and unitarism, then the outcome could be the failure of management to recognise trade unions.

The precise impact on employees generally will depend on the type of HRM that is actually practised, as opposed to simply the adoption of an HRM policy. The TUC (14) refer to; bad HRM, which they define as the piecemeal, ad hoc, unsystematic attempt to select items from the HRM menu to improve company performance which conceals a vigorous anti-union strategy; and good HRM which is in keeping with companies attempts to build a workplace by developing employee commitment.

Keenoy (10) describes HRM as a wolf in sheeps clothing. Furthermore, Fowler (187) argues that employee involvement under HRM is actually involvement on the companys terms, and is actually a subtle form of employee manipulation disguised as mutuality.

Therefore, it's possible that, whilst it may appear that employees have a greater involvement in the organisation, it is only selective involvement on the companys terms, a situation that may change with the advent of works councils. At the same time, it is feasible that management, in adopting HRM, will no longer see trade unions as being appropriate, as they raise the potential problem for the employee of dual allegiance - union or company? If the union were indeed no longer recognised, then if a situation arose where an individual is placed in a position of conflict with the company, due to this process of individualisation that employee would be in a relatively weak position to oppose the company.

Conclusion

It is clear that there are identifiable components that recur in HRM topics, such as employee involvement, commitment, appraisal and reward. However, these are also tenants of personnel management. The only clear factor that goes some way to differentiate HRM from personnel management is strategic planning. But, does the presence of an element of strategic thinking in people management justify the application of the term human resource management?

Focusing on this view of a long-term strategic view, Skinner (181) argues that benefits as a result of the implementation of HRM practices may not become apparent for five or more years, and secondly, current corporate polices tend not to reward managers for results that might not become apparent for several years. Hence, whilst it may be argued that HRM has the means of providing increased organisational effectiveness in the long term, will organisations, and managers, be prepared, or even allowed, to wait?

There also appears to be very little qualitative evidence to support any great degree of consistency between people management strategies and corporate strategies within companies. Hope-Hailey et al (17) indeed suggest that HRM is not being practiced in the forms suggested in the 180s, and that current practices are actually highly diverse. This diversity in practice suggests that HRM is highly sensitive to environmental and contextual factors as well as higher-level issues such as culture and managerial mentality.

These points lead to the question as to whether human resource management is actually sustainable in the long-term, despite the fact that HRM practices in organisations is on the increase. In order for HRM to be sustainable, several high-level definitions and concepts must be clarified.

Firstly, there is an implication that HRM can be seen as an "all or nothing" concept. This leads to a fundamental question; does an organisation have to actively implement all the practices that fall within HRM in order to claim that they are truly practising HRM? Conversely, can it be said that an organisation practices HRM if the personnel function centres on the practice of any combination of defined constituents of HRM?

Secondly, as Legge (18) suggests, HRM suffers from three inherent contradictions; individualism versus co-operation, commitment versus flexibility, and strong culture versus adaptability. Clearly unless such internal tensions can be rationalised, they too may threaten the long-term sustainability of HRM.

Finally, the effect on the employee must be considered. In effect, this is directly related to the effects on, and response of, trade unions to HRM. With the move in management to draw direct links to the employee, the potential for trade unions to intervene on behalf of the employee, through the traditional means of collective bargaining, will become increasingly marginalised.

Potentially, with increasing allegiance from the employee being sought by the company, there may come a time when an employee will have to choose between company and union. Furthermore, as company-employee links strengthen, the company may question the very need for trade union recognition, leaving the employees in a potentially undermined position.

Ultimately, though, the question that has to be asked is whether or not HRM is simply context specific; it seems that the observed shifts in management style to HRM is simply a response to the new employment conditions in the 10s, and the question that begs answering is, if this is the case, how well will HRM fare with the next inevitable change in personnel management methodology?

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